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Ireland’s Environment 2012
130
in Ireland found that levels were
lower compared with a similar
study in 2002 (Pratt et al., 2012).
Heavy Metals
Heavy metals occur naturally in the
environment and low concentrations
of some of these are essential
to human health and wellbeing.
However, elevated concentrations
of many heavy metals are directly
toxic to humans, animals and plants.
Sources of heavy metals include
materials such as paints, batteries
and piping and industrial activities
including mining and coal-burning
electricity generation. A number
of European regulatory controls are
in place to limit heavy metal inputs
to the environment; for example,
the Restriction on Use of Certain
Hazardous Substances (RoHS)
Directive. Under this Directive only
very low concentrations of six listed
hazardous substances, including lead,
mercury and cadmium, are allowed
to be used in electrical and electronic
equipment, and appropriate product
waste management is required.
Ongoing monitoring of water
and air indicates that heavy metal
pollution does not pose a significant
threat to health in Ireland.
Endocrine Disruptors and
Pharmaceuticals
The human endocrine system
is responsible for controlling
many body functions including
the formation of hormones.
Endocrine disruptors are a diverse
group of chemicals that affect
human hormonal function, for
example through reduced sperm
count. Substances with proven or
suspected endocrine-disrupting
effects include some pesticides,
PCBs, dioxins and synthetic
pharmaceuticals that are intended
to be highly hormonally active;
for example, the contraceptive
pill. Effects on human hormones
can range from minor to serious
depending on the specific endocrine
receptor and the amount of
exposure. Research funded by the
EPA on levels of endocrine disruptors
in the Irish environment indicated
that although some endocrine-
disrupting compounds were
detected, levels are generally low
and not regarded as a significant
risk. Implementation of EU legislation
such as REACH, CLP and the Water
Framework Directive should help
protect against exposure to these
chemicals. The issue is also receiving
increased focus at international
level, for example through the UN’s
Strategic Approach to International
Chemicals Management
initiative and
by the EU through the
Community
Strategy for Endocrine Disrupters
.
Pharmaceutical and Personal
Care Products
The occurrence and effects of
residues from pharmaceutical and
personal care products (PPCPs),
such as medicines, veterinary drugs,
fragrances, sunscreen agents and
cosmetics, discharging into the
general environment is an emerging
global concern. In particular, changes
in society and medical practice
have resulted in increased usage
of non-prescription medication
coupled with intensive therapeutic
approaches to disease management.
This has resulted in the use of large
quantities of antimicrobial and other
biologically active compounds that
are not entirely absorbed by the
human body and so are excreted to
municipal sewage systems. Waste
water treatment plants have variable
levels of effectiveness in removing
these compounds and so they can
be discharged to water bodies.
Similarly, veterinary products used
routinely in agriculture eventually
find their way to ground and surface
waters and also pose a risk. Disposal
of unwanted/out-of-date medicines
via municipal rubbish collections or
down the toilet also delivers these
products into the environment, and
improved procedures and public
education on safe disposal are
required.
The main concern with regard
to the impacts of PPCPs is the
development of antimicrobial
resistance in bacteria, which is
recognised as a major public health
problem, but other toxicological
and endocrine-disrupting effects
are also possible. Preliminary
results from EPA-funded research
undertaken by the National University
of Ireland Galway in collaboration
with University College Dublin has
found that antimicrobial residues
are present in hospital effluent and
in municipal sewage downstream
from hospital effluent discharge
points, at levels that could promote
antimicrobial resistance formation.
At this stage, further investigation is
required but the research highlights
an issue that is likely to become more
significant in the future as a result
of the ageing demographic and
increasing pharmaceutical use.
Nanomaterials
Nanomaterials are a recent
technology and offer great
potential in a number of areas
with environmental benefits such
as improved energy efficiency in
electronics; more precisely targeted
medicines; and applications
including water treatment and
soil remediation. Nanotechnology
generally refers to work performed
with materials on a scale of less than
100 nanometres (nm) – for reference,
a human hair is around 80,000 nm in
diameter. A key feature of materials
used in their nano-form is that their
very small scale introduces new
properties such as increased strength,
chemical reactivity and electrical
conductivity. They are already in use
in hundreds of products including
sunscreen, fuel additives and
antibacterial clothing.
However, despite their beneficial
properties, there is concern that
certain nanomaterials are potentially